Personal Barriers to Online Learning Essay Example for Free

Personal Barriers to Online Learning EssayOnline learning or e-Learning refers to application of electronic engine room for the deli very of instructional subject matter or knowledge domains. Beamish et al. (2002), defines e-Learning as . . . a wide set of applications and processes allied to training and learning that includes computer-based learning, online learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. These services can be delivered by a variety of electronic media, including the intranet, internet, interactive TV and satellite. In spite of the great flexibility and varied range of tools that e-Learning can provide to conveyance of title education, implementing any e-Learning system can be a complicated and complex endeavour and online learning can be a very frustrating welcome for the student as well as the teacher. A number of personal barriers affect students and teachers alike in any online learning system. Personal Barriers of Students The technology on tap (predicate) with students determines the nature of the course substance to a large extent.Students may simply not have the required bandwidth to access high-end mul seasondia content. The course designer has to issue the contents to suit the technology availability of the students. This is especially true of e-Learning courses catering to international community scattered all over the world. In such cases unholy constraints may have to be imposed on the utilization of technology resources available at the end of the imparting institution. The design would then have to optimized for dial-up users with at the most 800600 pixel monitor screen resolutions.In fact, galore(postnominal) universities take special care to ensure prior to registration that their respective e-Learning course content is accessible to the students. Technical infrastructure deficiencies on the student side can impede course activities, especially in an online distance-learning environment. (Arabasz, 2003, p p. 42) The proficiency level of the student in using ICT tools would enhance or undermine his e-Learning experience to a great extent. In the international context it would be unwise to expect uniform familiarity with ICT usage.A student, previously not exposed to ICT, will therefore not only have to handle the course requirements, scarce will also have to discover the requisite skills in ICT to pursue the course effectively. From the learner perspective, literacy and IT skills and aptitude for self-direction, being confident and motivated to participate in online learning have also been place as potential barriers to effective online learning (Australian Institute for Social Research, 2006, pp. 15). The factor that students have to study in isolation in an e-Learning system has triggered off many debates.Many perceive this isolation as a crippling obstacle to the development of e-Learning systems for higher education. Brouner and Flowers (1997) even suggested that the lack of hu man interactions in the incorporation of technology into higher education would have to be effectively made up by increased human contact. The e-Learning environment lacks the discipline and time regulations imposed on students in conventional education. This requires students to be more motivated, better time managers and more attentive during e-Learning sessions.The lack of the proximity and personal touch of the instructor as in a traditional classroom can create a communication chasm that both the instructor and the student may find difficult to surmount. In a situation where eye contact and proximity are limited, students cannot be disciplined nor affirmed by eye contact and body language (McKnight, 2000). Time is some other constraint that affects online learning negatively. Whilst education has now extended geographically it has limited students with time restrictions (Jones et. al. , 2004, pp. 14).Trials and Tribulations for the Faculty Time is perhaps the biggest investmen t that the instructor has to make. The amount of time required to develop and maintain an e-Learning course is usually not anticipated by the people involved. The instructor has to spend a lot of time on restructuring and reengineering the course for e-Learning delivery. A complete over hauling is required. Instructors also need to give time for technical and pedagogical training as instructions in e-Learning differ radically from conventional approaches.Last but not the least, the instructor has to spend considerable time corresponding or communicating with students. A very important aspect of e-Learning is the views or approach of the instructor. The instructor could be trying to make the e-Learning experience as good and fruitful as the conventional classrooms. It is a case of trying to replicate the conventional classroom in e-Learning. The second approach could be the instructors effort to improve the instructions through the medium of e-Learning.The instructor will have to de cide on which approach to adopt, a decision that could profoundly influence the very character and woodland of the e-Learning content. Technical issues can hamper an instructors efficiency or performance. The instructor is often not familiar with the technologies that are utilized. Development in multimedia would require knowledge of Flash, Shockwave and similar tools. It is difficult to find persons skilled in both the application technology and the field of education.The problem of technology extends to the teacher who may not be proficient in the software. The dependency on technology also tends to undermine the facultys confidence at times. Are things dismissal to work when Im in the classroom? Will the Internet be up? Do I need to bring back-up materials on a disk? Will the last instructor have left things in good shape? These issues may be more basic than youd expect, but dependability is still a major issue. (Arabasz, 2003, pp. 41) Online Learning therefore requires very c areful planning and implementation in order to achieve success.

Psychology Debate Essay Example for Free

Psychology Debate EssayPsychology is a human science and should thereby leave the depicted object of biology to the biologists. Psychology, as defined by the APA is, the study of the mind and behaviour(APA, 2013), this rendering states that psychology is indeed separate to that of biology as biology by definition is the branch of science concerned with the structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution of living and non-living organisms (biology online, 2013), this implies that the two ar indeed two different disciplines which do not require interaction, as they are simply focusing on different things. A good example of the two disciplines being separate, is psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis, a method of therapy developed by Freud and still utilise widely today, focuses on the subconscious and says that mental illness is caused by underlie traumas, repressed memories and unconscious desires. If these are brought to the surface, by the patient verbalising under hypn osis of these repressed, unconscious and underlying issues, it is thought that by uncovering them they will find answers.Psychoanalysis has no foundations in biology and even as it has been expanded upon by people such as Adler and Jung, still does not believe that biology is relevant to psychology (Kandel, 1999). The simple fact that they are, still to this day, separate disciplines again reinforces that they are separate spheres of study and should remain that way.AGAINST Psychologists need an bring ining of biology in order to treat patients, and understand concepts fully.Psychology could not be practiced if it was not for the fundamental biology that sets human beings apart from any other species. An understanding of the brain, body and how they function and there interactions and co-existence with psychological concepts such as mood, personality, emotions are integral and in fact, psychology needs a biological foundation and understanding to even begin to interpret psychologi cal concepts (Weiten, 1992). When taking a closer look at the definitions mentioned previously, they two study life.Since biology is the study of life psychology fits into this definition as psychologists too study life. In saying that, the study of life should not be left up to the biologists as they are typically concerned with the structure, function, growth, evolution and distribution of living and non-living organisms, whereas psychologists look deeper into the study of life, not just seeing it as a science but seeing it as an avenue to help and better peoples lives through understanding the fundamental biological whole kit and boodle of the brain.But without an understanding of the human brain and body and how it functions psychologists would not be able to put these two disciplines together to achieve their outcomes. It is crucial for a psychologist to understand the work of biology in order to be an effective psychologist. Without a biological basis, there would be no way t hat psychology would even be a pro-active discipline. Diagnosing a patient today, requires the psychologist to be able to understand the biological forces which influence behaviour (Weiten, 1992).

Shareholder Vs Stakeholder Theory Management Essay

Sh areholder Vs Stakeholder Theory Management EssayHis views reflect Adam Smiths view that firms operate solely for the purpose of making a profit which contributes to the boilers suit well cosmos of society. Any problem activity is skillfulified as long as it increases the value of the firm to its shareholder (Cochran, 1994). Friedman (2005) ac friendships one reason for the creation of firms and that is to make a profit for its shareholders. According to Friedman, firms do not exists to change the terra firma or to do good. He pushes the Shareholder Theory to the extent that he declares as theft or violation of counselling responsibility any form of donation by the firm, be it in time, in kind, or in monetary measures, by the managers from the investors o the firm (Ruf et al, 1998).Shareholder theory has been astray misinterpreted and quoted in its extreme sense. Carroll (1998) qualifies that although Friedman does insist that the moreover responsibility of the firm is to record pay for its shareholders, he goes on to state that the firm mustiness operate within acceptable legal and social parameters.The Shareholder perspective of a firm has been wide ch completelyenged over the past years. Authors such as Low and Cowton (2004) and Agatiello (2008) beg that the sole mission of firms to be profit maximisers is incorrect and inappropriate. Todays modern organisation is so tangled that reducing it to such simple destinations and motivations oversimplifies the same nature of the commercial organisation. Spence (2001) writes that the Stakeholder Theory has emerged as an alternative for the Shareholder Theory of the firm. According to Freeman (1984), the verge stakeholder skunk be traced back to management literature of 1963 when the term was defined as those groups without whose game the organisation would cease to exist.Stakeholder theory recognises that firms have a frequently wider base of inte waited parties other(a) than the shareholde rs and holds that the firm must honour its duties and responsibilities towards all of the parties. The shareholders are simply one group of the several groups which has a claim on the firm (Heath and Norman, 2004). Deck (1994) gives an interesting interpretation of the Stakeholder Theory. While he recognises that the objective of an organisation is to create wealth and distribute this amongst its investors, he explains how the investors are not solitary(prenominal) represented by the shareholders, but, in fact can and do take the form of other groups such as employees and the society in general, who invest knowledge and skills in the firm. Indeed Halal (2000) argues that the resources invested by stakeholders are roughly tenfold that invested by the shareholders. Post et al (2002) claim that risk is not only hold in to financial exposure but in addition includes risks to employment, career opportunity, environmental impact and quality of products and services. If a firm fails, em ployees lose their jobs and possibly also their retirement plans. In line with this argument, firm benefits should not only be distributed to the financial investors, but profits should be divided amongst all those design risk within the organisation.2.2 The terzetto Bottom LineA win-win outcome for organisations and stakeholders is that created by the Triple Bottom Line (Elkington, 1998). This is an attempt to shift stemma towards a stakeholder-based appeal. The idea tin can the 3BL simulacrum is that a corporations success should be measured not just by the traditional financial bottom line, but also by social/ honourable and environmental performance (Norman and MacDonald, 2004). The People, Planet, Profit triangle postulates how profit is to be perceived from three perspectives. A positive triple bottom line reflects an increase in the ships companys value, including both its profitability and shareholder value and its social, human and environmental capital (Savitz, 200 6). Even if the three aspects of sustainability environmental, social and economic already existed, Elkingtons principle played a crucial role in shaping initiatives such as the Global Reporting Initiative and the Dow Jones Sustainability Indexes (Berkovics, 2010). The novelty of the 3BL lies in the contention of its supporters that the fulfilment of its obligations to communities, employees, customers and suppliers should be measured, calculated, audited and reported, just like financial performance had been for the past hundred years. The major fallacy of the 3BL appeal is that whilst authors speak of the benefit of measuring the benefits accruing from three perspectives, no one has suggested how to usage the data on social performance to calculate some form of net social bottom line. Adding up the financial pluses and deducting the minuses is often easier than summing up the environmental achievements and shortcomings of a firm (MacDonald and Norman, 2004).2.3 Defining CSRIn his seminal work entitled Social Responsibilities of the Businessman, Bowen (1953) defined CSR as the entrepreneurs obligation to pursue those policies, to make those decisions or to find out the lines of run which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of society. It is because of this work that authors such as Carroll (1999) and Windsor (2001) have declared Bowen to be the Father of CSR.In at presents world of increased globalisation, environmental cognisance, recessionary pressures and high insecurity, there are increasing pressures on entrepreneurs and organisations to deliver increased societal value (Jenkins, 2006).Weber (2008) posits that although the concept of CSR is widely discussed, a universally accepted definition still needs to emerge (Turker, 2009). Further Van Marrewijk (2003) claims that a one solutions fits all explanation of CSR is virtually impracticable as the concept takes on a different meaning for each organisation, depending on the levels of awareness and ambition of the firm itself.In the 1970s authors of the subject began to depute that the emphasis on responsibility implied accountability. That, according to Carroll (1979) was too narrow and static an interpretation in order to fully picture the social efforts of the firms. As a result of this criticism two new concepts emerged Corporate Social Responsiveness (CSR2) and Corporate Social Performance (CSP). CSR2 links CSR with strategic management and stresses the proactive approach required from companies. CSP offered a managerial framework to deal with CSR and attempted to measure it.Frederick (1994) refers to CRS2 as a conceptual transition from the philosophical aspect of CSR to the more bodily process-oriented approach. several(prenominal) authors such as Ackermann and Bauer (1976), Vallentin (2009), Sethi (1979) also support this view. Others like Carroll (1979) however argue that the term responsiveness is not an appropriate replacement for responsibility. He argues that any action which is not the fruit of reflection and responsibility is not exactly a refinement of a concept which merely encourages responsibility. Firms may indeed be responsive and irresponsibleCSP emerged as a multidimensional concept which embraced the interaction of social responsibility, social responsiveness and the policies corporations designed to address such issues (Watrick and Cochran, 1985). CSP therefore focuses attention from bodied motivations to corporate action and implementation. Although the term CSP tends to give a more dynamic and pragmatic interpretation of the concept it has not been left uncriticised. Authors such as Davenport (2000) aim at CSP as a theoretical creation of the scholars. The terms CSR, CSR2 and CSP are often utilize interchangeably and today, much of the literature simply uses the single term CSR to mean both the firms acceptance of responsibilities and the actions and policies it undertakes in the area (Ciliberti et al 200 8).The writings of McGuire (1963), Davis (1960), and Sethi (1975) all concur that CSR describes the responsibilities of a firm which extend beyond what is the legal obligations of the firm. In other words, CSR starts where the law ends. Carroll (1979) is also in support of this view and in his work in 1991 presents a Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibilities to include all, economic, legal, honest and discretionary responsibilities which emanate from the existing operations of organisations. Although Carroll presents his place in the form of a pyramid with the economic concerns of the firm as the base, he tells us that his model does not, in fact portray a continuum and that the four facets of organisational responsibility are not mutually exclusive.DiscretionaryResponsibilitiesBe a goodcorporate citizen honestResponsibilitiesBe honorableLegalResponsibilitiesObey the LayEconomicResponsibilitiesBe profitableFigure 2 The Pyramid of Corporate Social ResponsibilityCarroll (1991)In 2003 Schwartz and Carroll presented the different facets of CSR in a different format. This time they moved away from the pyramid structure which seems to have implied some form or natural progression from one level to another and presented their model in the form of a Venn diagram. Furthermore they only included three of Carrolls earlier CSR aspects. Schwartz and Carroll (2003) represented the economic, legal and estimable responsibilities but omitted the discretionary category. Indeed it is inappropriate to regard discretionary and philanthropic activities as responsibilities.Purely estimablePurelyLegalPurelyEconomicEthical / LegalLegal / EconomicEthical / EconomicLegal / Economic / EthicalFigure 3 The Three-Domain Model of CSRSchwartz and Carroll (2003)2.4 A Modern Interpretation of CSRIn 2001 The European Union presented a Green Paper entitled Promoting a European Framework for Corporate Social Responsibility. In this paper CSR was defined as a concept whereby companies integ rate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. Pivato et al (2008) argue that this is one of the most common interpretations of CSR and it is consistent with recent academic literature. Stakeholder theory gained immenseness in the 1990s and continues to maintain its position as a rivet area of study in CSR (Wang, 2008).More recently, in October 2011, the EU Commission published a new policy on CSR wherein it states that for a firm to run into its social responsibility it should have in place a process to integrate social, environmental, ethical and human rights concerns into their business operations and core strategy in close collaboration with their stakeholders . The EU also put forward a new definition of CSR as the responsibility of enterprises for their impacts on society. The EU intends that firms will give birth by their responsibility when they respect the applicable legislation and aim for collective agreements amid social partners. Another classical aspect of the new EU approach to CSR is the fact that the emphasis is not only on the private sector firms only, but the maximisation of the creation of shared value for society is now also expected of public sector firms.This new policy advances an action agenda for the three year period up to 2014 covering eight distinct areas which item how the EU intends ensuring that firms embrace this CSR concept. This action plan aims to bring up the visibility of CSR and the dissemination of good practices improve and track levels of trust in business improve self-and co-regulation processes enhance market reward for CSR improve company disclosure on social and environmental information further integrate CSR into education, training and research emphasise the importance of national and sub-national CSR policies and better align European and global approaches to CSR.The EU commission reports that clear and medium coatd firms are the predominant form of enterprise in the European Union (EU Commission, 2012). The EU further claims that if Europe and its enterprises are to reap the full benefit of CSR, then it is imperative that SMEs engage fully in CSR and are recognised for their initiatives. This is very challenging as CSR has traditionally been the domain of the corporate sector, but recognition of the increasing importance of the SME sector has led to an emphasis on their social and environmental impact (Jenkins, 2004)2.5 CSR and SMEs pocket-size, small and medium-sized enterprises are the engine of the European economy. They are an essential course of jobs, create entrepreneurial touch sensation and innovation in the EU and are thus crucial for fostering competitiveness and employment (Verheugen, 2005).In 2003 the EU revised its 1996 definition of an SME and within the 27 member states, today an SME is a firm with fewer than 250 employees and with a turnover of less than 50 million or balance sheet totals of less than 43 million. Apart from these quantifications, firms must be independent, i.e. separate from an economic group that is stronger than itself.Medium Sized FirmsSmall FirmsMicroFirmsEnterprise CategoryHead Count (Annual mold Unit turnover rateBalance Sheet Totals 2million 2million 10million 10million 50 million 43millionORORORORFigure 4 EU Definition of an SMESource EU Commission (2003)The EU reports that even in 2012 SMEs have unploughed their position as the backbone of the European economy, with around 20.7 million firms accouting for more than 98% of all enterprises of which 92.2% are firms which employ fewer than 10 people (Wymenga et al 2012). Wymenga (2012) reports that in 2012 SMEs accounted for 67% of total employment, at around 87 million people and 58% of gross value added.The Maltese economy is one of the smallest economies in the EU this implies that the relevance of SMEs for the domestic economy is indeed crucial. There are a little les s than 30,000 firms in Malta, and with the exception of 44 mountainous firms, the rest employ less than 250 workers. In fact, the economy is dominated by micro-sized firms (95.1%). Small and Medium-Sized firms in Malta account for 4.7% of business organisations, employ 41.8% of the labour force and account for 38.3% of the islands value-added. Micro firms employ 34.4% of the labour force in Malta and account for 26.3% of the value added (EU Commission, 2012).Medium Sized FirmsSmall FirmsMicro FirmsEnterprise CategoryHead Count (Annual Work UnitTurnoverBalance Sheet Totals 2million 2million 10million 10million 50 million 43millionORORORORFox (2005) contends that all organisations impact on society and the environment in a number of ways done their operations. For this reason, CSR is important in queen-sized and small firms alike (Moore and Spence, 2006). The importance of SMEs in CSR literature has, however been overlooked (Perrini and Minoja, 2008 Ciliberti et al, 2008, Moore an d Spence, 2006 ). A study carried out by Jenkins in 2004 reveals that much of the thinking about CSR in SMEs is based on unfounded assumptions. It is erroneously assumed that large companies are the norm and therefore, as a consequence all CSR approaches have predominantly been designed and are intended for large firms. Further, it has been presumed that small firms are little large firms differentiating themselves from large corporations merely on the basis of size (Jenkins, 2004). It is clear that SMEs are not miniature large companies, and as such the same practices which have been designed for large firms are difficult to fit to small organisations (Williamson et al, 2006). A study of Swiss multinational companies (MNCs) and SMEs reveals that contrary to what is perceived by much of the literature on the subject, small firms possess several organisational characteristics that could promote the consolidation of CSR practices as core business functions, while MNCs possess the dis position to enhance communication and reporting on CSR. CSR is therefore not a function of company size, but rather of company characteristics (Spence, 2011 et al).Structure is one of the factors that distinguishes large from small firms. While large firms tend to organise themselves with a bureaucratic structure and formalisation, small firms are characterised by loose informal working sex actships (Perez-Sanchez, 2003). The behaviour of small firms is strongly dependent on the characteristics and management style of the owner himself, whilst in large firms this is not so strongly felt (Tilley, 2000). Perrini (2006) argues that small firms are more often than not owner-managed and are run on personal relationships. Gond and Igalens (2008) pin the level of CSR commitment by SMEs as directly dependent on the personality and personal convictions of its managing director. Age plays a significant role here, with the younger owner/managers display greater CSR awareness gender has no im pact on CSR deployment (Ede et al, 2000). Some authors are in disagreement as to whether the educational background of the owner/manager has any bearing on the level of CSR activity. (Ede et al, 2000 Spence et al, 2000). Spence et al (2007), maintain this claim and go one step further by asserting that it is the directors vision for the future of his business and his discretion and perception of internal resources which determine CSR engagement in SMEs. Bonneveux et al (2012) report that the capacity of a director to locate and integrate new resources is fundamental to the integration of CSR measures and initiatives. The correlation between CSR engagement by SMEs and the perception and motivation of the firms director and how he sees and reacts to CSR issues is thus reinforced.Ownership and management in large firms are more separate and distinct than they are in small firms. In small firms, control remains in the hands of one of the owners, possibly putting him in a position wher e he can make personal choices with respect to the allocation of resources (Spence and Rutherfoord (2001). Given this particular management characteristic, the choice of CSR engagement in SMEs is mostly determined by the personal attributes of the owner/manager. A study of US SMEs employing between 5 and 500 workers suggests that efforts to influence owners and managers to implement environmental CSR initiatives such as for example waste reduction need great focus on changing individual attitudes (Bennington et al, 2012). Stewart et al (2011) also confirm the link between leading and the successful uptake of CSR and sustainability in SMEs.According to the shareholder perspective postulated by Friedman (1970) the owner of a small business has the right to follow their own ethical beliefs in the allocation of organisational resources as they own the business and therefore it follows that they are using their own funds to finance any CSR activity. This is not so in large firms where o wnership and control are separate and the investor of the funds does not have any say on how the funds he has contributed are being divested. In support of CSR engagement even based on a shareholder perspective of the firm, Stewart et al (2012) report measurable results in terms of business performance which can be directly attributable to the SMEs greater social and environmental engagement. The study highlights the relationship between learning, the development of organisational values that underpin CSR and meliorate business performance within the SME context.Perrini (2006) contends that SMEs are, at many times stretched by multitasking, troubled by the limited cash available, and controlled by an informal mechanism. On the other hand, large firms are more likely to engage in carefully planned, formal, strategic management (Jenkins, 2004).Jenkins (2004) tells us that most SMEs are more likely to be concerned about the day-to-day survival then by understanding concepts such as CS R. He contends that the term CSR alienates some of the small firms and that the language used needs to be simpler. In this respect, the European Commission has propo9sed the term Responsible Entrepreneurship in lieu of social responsibility of SMEs. Jenkins research however reveals that small firms regards CSR as an all embracing concept involving three pillars sustainability awareness of and responsibility towards a range of stakeholders, the relative importance of whom varies from one firm to another. This implies that most SMEs describe CSR on the lines of the stakeholder theory. Jenkins (2004) reveals that SMEs are consistent in their identification of stakeholders and point towards the environmental management, employees, the friendship/society, and the supply chain. It is not at all surprising that SMEs focus their initiatives on the topical anaesthetic community. SME owner/managers usually live in the same area in which the firm operates (CSR Europe, 2003). SMEs, in fact, r ely much more that large firms on the prosperity of the community in which they operate as most of their customers and employees come from the surrounding area.Castka et al (2004) confirms that SMEs and large firms are not only different in nature but also in the way in which they approach CSR. They found that small businesses approach CSR informally and do not usually have pre-determined objectives or formal procedures for measuring the performance of objectives to away stakeholders. Further, large firms are more likely to adopt formal instruments to design CSR initiatives such as codes of place, ISO certification and social reporting (Graafland et al (2003). Large firms tend to integrate CSR as part of their business operations whilst SMEs consider CSR as an add on activity (Jenkins, 2004) and conduct CSR on an ad-hoc basis usually unrelated to their business strategy.Jenkins (2004) argues that the motivation for CSR engagement differs between large and small firms. Jenkins (20 06) explains that the growing visibility and the increased impact of large firms globally have called for greater accountability and transparency. On the other hand, small firms remain largely invisible and are not driven by external pressures, but rather by an internal drive to do the right thing or putting something back or showing entrepreneurial spirit (Jenkins, 2004). The force which drives SMEs to engage in CSR activities is therefore more ethical rather than commercial. Gupta et al (2012) conducted a study of Indian SMEs in which they highlight the many benefits which settle to SMEs engaging in CSR initiatives. Small and medium-sized firms actively engaging in CSR were reported to enjoy an endless list of advantages amongst which were improved image, reputation, trust and understanding. Firms also secured a better market position and improved financial performance increased attractiveness to potential recruits, increased employee motivation, cost savings and increased effici ency, efficient risk management systems and more business overall. CSR can be the stimulus for increased motivation and productivity amongst a firms workforce (Salquin et al, 2007 Berger-Douce, 2008). An awareness and understanding of the challenges posed by CSR can actually form an excellent basis for organisational differentiation and competitive advantage (Kechiche et al, 2012). Not all academics concord and Jenkins (2006) asserts that SMEs undertake CSR simply for its own sake and cease from using it as a method of self promotion as the large firms do. According to Fassin (2008), CSR is a rather informal action, and therefore more primordial rather than strategic and for this reason, SMEs will hardly enjoy all the benefits that CSR engagement implies.Jenkins (2004) emphasises that owner/managers of small firms are mainly preoccupied with the economic viability of their firms and spend a large part of their time and energy focusing on this aspect of their business. One main fea ture of SMEs is that the owner/manager is the person who deals with the day-to-day operations of the firm as well as other projects. This is distinct from large firms, where there is a dedicated CSR department with resources being specialised for this function. For this reason, time and resources are identified as the greatest constraints which SMEs face with respect to investing in CSR initiatives. Gupta et al (2012) also claim that the initial cost of CSR is at times high for SMEs as they conduct small business and they justified request for government assistance and support in the implementation of CSR in the firm. The owner/managers of the UK firms studies by Jenkins revealed that they difficulties trying to convince reluctant employees to involve themselves in CSR activities. Furthermore, the excessive number of short term projects, the lack of information (Berger-Douce, 2008), the problems with measuring intangible benefits and the difficulties of making connections in a sma ll community where other common adversities faced by SMEs. SMEs also meet difficulties which are related to the market, particularly restrictions in applying environmental and/or societal legislation because of its complexity and the rigidity of procedures. SMEs complain of the lack of adequate support services and infrastructure (Kechiche et al, 2012).Despite the adversities faced, Castka et al (2004) reveal that SMEs acknowledge that there is a need for them to conduct business in a socially responsible manner. When researching Swedish SMEs, Pettersson et al (2012) found that CSR activities become more important for some stakeholders, particularly in times of difficulties and revealed an increased need for CSR engagement. They report that SMEs can strategically use CSR activities in order to develop a competitive advantage through differentiation by creating societal advantage. They claim that CSR activities become more important for some stakeholders, particularly in times of di fficulties. Jenkins (2004) posits that SMEs are often active members in their community. In support of this Perrini (2006) reports that 50% of European SMEs are engaged in socially responsible activities. He explains how there is a positive correlation between the degree of involvement and the size of the enterprise with 48% of very small firms, 65% of small and 70% of medium sized firms being engaged in CSR activities. A study of Danish SMEs carried out in 2005 (Danish National Labour Market Authority) identified seven areas of CSR deployment, namely, the workforce, the environment, stakeholder engagement, marketplace activities, supply chain activities, internal management activities and charitable and voluntary activities. The study revealed that work-force related CSR activities were most diffused with 54% of all CSR activities, environmental activities occupied 51% of all initiatives and supply chain activities only occupy 22% of all initiatives. On the other hand, the baromete r of sustainable development within French SMEs (CROCIS, 2007) reports that 96% of firms in the Paris area had implemented sustainable development measures while 47% of these firms had good links with the community through sponsorship deals, charitable events, back-to-work/employability schemes etc. Other academics, (Saulquin et al, 2005 Berger-Douce, 2008) are in support of this picture and confirm that employees appear to be well treated in the majority of SMEs. Fox (2005) reports that the most likely reason for SMEs to engage in environmental management is when this becomes circumstantial in attracting and retaining business either locally or internationally. Saulquin et al (2010) affirm this by reporting that there is great sensitivity by SMEs to the wellbeing of their employees and their community links. In support of this, other authors claim that large companies influence the behaviour of small firms in their supply chain in particular in relation to environmental protection , labour and human rights, health and safety (Jorgensen and Knudsen, 2005). Worthington et al (2006) tells us that UK SMEs invested in a range of CSR activities and the most common forms of CSR deployment ranged from donating to local causes and charities, sponsorships of local events and organisations, support for local schools and colleges, environmental initiatives, ethical purchasing and staff related activities.2.6. capacitance Maturity ModelFassin (2008), contends that most SMEs regard CSR as rather informal action and refers to it as an intuitive initiative rather than strategic process. On the other hand, Spence et al (2011) affirm that MNC are often seen to assume responsibility by implementing CSR-related organisational practices and structures which permission them to interact directly with civil society. Further, however, MNCs are often accused of using CSR as a front to cover up the more real business practices. Indeed it is important to analyse the depth and effectiv eness with which organisations embed CSR within their operations so as to distinguish between CSR talk and CSR practice (Spence et al, 2011).The Capability Maturity Model is an organisational model which describes five evolutionary stages in which a firm manages its processes. An organisation which treats CSR as an ad hoc activity will be at the initial stage. As the firm matures in its approach to CSR and embraces CSR more and more as part of its core business practice it starts to progress through the abutting four levels, namely managed, defined, qualitatively managed, optimizing. The maturity levels offer a structure to the discipline needed for continuous improvement.This paradigm is useful to determine the reason behind different levels of organisational CSR commitment and what it takes for a firm to progress to the next level of commitment.Level 1INITIALLevel 2MANAGEDLevel 3 delimitLevel 4QUANTITATIVELY MANAGEDLevel 5OPTIMIZINGProcess unpredictable,Poorly controlled and reac tiveProcesses characterised for projects,and is often reactiveProcesses characterised for theOrganisation and is proactiveProcess measured,and controlledFocus on processimprovementFigure 5 The Capability Maturity ModelHumphrey, 1989

Strategic Business Management And Planning A Swot Analysis Of Pepsico Business Essay

Strategic craft Management And Planning A Swot Analysis Of Pepsico Business EssayThe greatest rival of Pepsi is Coca Cola. Coca Cola is an international recognized brand. Its brand name is its basic strength. But Pepsi is successfully maintaining its No.1 position in India as with its aggressive marketing planning and quick diversification in creating and developing more ideas and merchandise packaging. Pepsi is operating in India, through 36 bottlers solely over India. These bottlers are Pepsis strength. Pepsi has given franchise to these bottlers. Bottlers distribute, produce and help in promoting the brand. Pepsi to a fault launched its fast food chain KFC i.e. Kentucky Fried Chicken.Pepsi is a very sound organized multinational company, which operates almost all over the globe even in India it has also proved to be the No.1 soft sop up. The purpose of this assignment is adopt the strategies which Pepsi has applied in India market for its product Pepsi Cola. Pepsi Internati onal is a world renowned brand.Also did analysis of the soft drink assiduity in India and worldwide. The worlds confidential cultivation beverage sector are soft drinks. Global usage of soft drinks is rising by 7-9% a year and soft drink consumption change magnitude by almost 500% during last 50 years (Putnam and allshouse 1999).ContentsIndex Page No.IntroductionPepsi operates almost all over the world and it is a very well organized multinational company. Pepsi International is world renowned brand. One of the best carbonated drink producers is Pepsi. It is best in quality, hygienics and serving all over the world. The production of Cola by Pepsi is more than 100 years and it has controlled the world market for over a century now, its breaker point office is situated in New York.About PepsiCo in IndiaPepsiCo arrived in India in 1989 and has become the countrys largest selling food and beverages Company. PepsiCo has created a business which serves the long destination dynami c needs of consumers in India and it is iodine of the largest multinational investors in the country. Soft drinks observe healthy growth in India. The group has developed an expansive beverage and foods business. There are 36 bottling plants in India of which 13 are owned by the company and 12 are owned by the franchisee, to support its operations. In expansion to this, PepsiCos Frito Lay foods division has 3 state-of-the-art plants. PepsiCos vision is to make tomorrow better than today as it business is based on sustainability. Its faithfulness to living by this vision every day is visible in its contribution to the country, consumers and farmers.MissionEvery business starts with mission and vision. A mission logical argument is an approved, short, written statement of the purpose of the company or organization. The mission statement should teach the activity of the organization, give out its boilersuit goal, and guide the sense of instruction and decision making. It arranges the framework or context within which companys strategies are designed. (hughes K 2005)According to the companys official site, PepsiCo Incorporateds mission is to make itthe worlds chair consumer products company, focusing on benefitted foods and beverages. PepsiCo bout to produce healthier financial rewards to investors as it provides chances for growth and enhancement to its employees. So the overall mission of PepsiCo is to expand the value of donationholders investments. This is outleted through growth of sales, cost controls and refreshful investments of resources. PepsiCo believes in providing products that are safe, wholesome, economically efficient and environmentally sound and also believes that their commercial success depends upon offering quality and value to their customers and consumers.VisionPepsiCo is one of the largest companies in the world. It is the worlds largest consumer products companies. PepsiCo initiates in focusing various strategies and believes that they exit drive growth and ensure the companys success. When planning any change in mission and objectives it is important to consider their result of such a change on the companys long term strategies. Whatever PepsiCo is doing, it seems to be doing well. The biggest exposure combined in changing mission and objectives would be a loss of focus and loss of momentum. (PepsiCo Vision and Strategy) bone AnalysisStrength-Weakness-Opportunities-ThreatsA SWOT analysis summarizes the key issues from the business environment and the strategic capability of an organization. SWOT helps the company to look itself for better and for worse. SWOT is a mean by which the company can better understand what it does very well and where its shortcomings are. It helps company sizing up the competitive landscape and gets some insight into the vagaries of market place. SWOT is centered to make an internal analysis effective and accurate so that special(prenominal) strengths and weaknesses of the compan y with the sound strategy can be built.Source www.scribd.com/doc/30755295/swot-analysis-pepsiPorter Five ForcesStrengthsOne of PepsiCos top brands i.e. Pepsi is one of the most acknowledgeable brands of the world, be according to Interbrand. It was ranked 26th amongst top 100 global brands since 2008. The strength of the brands of PepsiCo is distinct in PepsiCos presence in over 200 countries. It has the largest market share at 39% in the US beverage and at 25% in snack food. It is a multinational company which is very salutary and has strong and vast distribution channels. It has a very good relation with Franchise. This company is quality advised and provides good quality products.Technological FactorTechnology is utilise in manufacturing and packaging of the product, transportation of raw material or delivery of product. Technology affects the transportation costs, production costs and unskilled labor. It also plays an important grapheme in packing of product. The market nee d to study several important topics to make the best use of modern information technology and marketing information system as strategic asset. The company has a tag line Ye Hi Hai Right Choice Baby. Technology is shaping populations lives as the most hammy forces. PESTEL Framework relates this factor.PESTEL FrameworkWeaknessBy using weakness analysis we can know about the companys weaknesses and shortcomings so that the profit can be rebuilt. PepsiCo is dependent upon particular carbonated drinks and there is a saturation of carbonated soft drink segment. The company has centralized making factor. One of the strongest weaknesses of this company is that the products it produces target solely the young customers. The Franchises are political. Not all products bear the company name.Overdependence on Wal-MartThe largest customer of PepsiCo is Wal-Mart. whence the business strategy of Wal-Mart influenced the PepsiCos fortunes. PepsiCo is in pressure to hold smoothen its prices becau se of Wal-Marts low price themes. talk terms Power of CustomersThe power of buyers is the force that customers have on a producing diligence. In general, when buyer power is strong the relationship to the producing industry is near to what economist terms- a market in which there are many suppliers and one buyer. Under such market conditions the buyer sets the price. In India the negociate power is low as the products produces the company is accepted by the consumers. There is no participation of consumers in deciding the taste of soft drink. (Porters Five Forces)Bargaining Power of SuppliersFor carbonated soft drink industry there are few suppliers. Every producing industry requires raw materials- components, labor and other supplies. This enhances the buyer-supplier relationship among the industry and the firms that provide it the raw materials used to create products. Also, it is safe to assume that Pepsi and Coke sales account for a large percentage of the suppliers total rev enues. The overall bargaining power of suppliers is resulted to be low. Porters Five Forces model can be applied from the above.Today the people are very trendy sensitive towards the advertisement. Therefore people drink Dew on fashionable and trendy. Considering this PepsiCo targeted refreshing generation people and they are able to variediate between them, few people are conscious about caffeine so they might have negative anticipation about soft drink. Also some people think that in manufacturing wait on soft drink companies spreading the pollution. We can relate this above statement by applying PESTEL analysis as the social factor is affected because of above point.OpportunitiesBy the increasing population in India it increases the opportunities to the company. As more people keep more look ats and also the continuous shifting trend of population also increases the opportunities for the company. For instance, people will exchange to soft drinks from juice and fast foods as t he effect from changing social trends. One of the most potential weaknesses seeking by PepsiCo is settlement on US Markets by acquiring Russias leading Juice Company, Lebedyansky in the United Kingdom. By introducing TrueNorth Nut Snacks and increasing its Lipton Tea venture with Unilever, it continues to expand its product based. These recent initiatives enable PepsiCo to regulate in changing lifestyles of its consumers.The demand of Pepsi is over the competitor. PepsiCo can join with major showrooms restaurants with more opportunities. New products can easily while away in the market and the most benefitted chance for this company is that non-carbonated is fast growing industry in the world. With increasing opportunities the company does internet promotions and ordering processes.ThreatsNew Entrants whatever firm can enter or exit in a market and if free entry or exit exists, then profits evermore could e nominal. As the raw materials, machinery, labors are easily available in the country there are no barriers to entry in the soft drink processing industry. Because of the generations of loyal customers, the retaliation level of the companies in the industry is very low.According to Porters Five Forces model a new entrant to an industry brings new competence a wish to gain market share position and rather new approaches to serving customer. New player means price will be decreased and margin squeezes which results in low profitability in long run. (Michael Porter, competitive strategy 1980 pp7- 33). The challenge to Pepsi is to build further the brand loyalty in their core cola products so that the consumers will not switch to the cheaper, private label imitations products. Pepsi must maintain the good relations with large retailers as the access to distribution channels is currently one of the largest barriers to entry.Rivalries can also affect the threats of the company. From the model of Porters Five Forces rivalry refers to the actions taken by the fi rms in the industry to improve their position and gain advantage over each other. All the companies are charging the same prices against their products in the industry. If Pepsi increases the prices of the soft drink, all the companies follow the same path. In a maturing market such as the domestic carbonated sodas, the only way to gain market share is to steal from ones rivals.Substitutes- Substitute products refer to the products in other industries. A threat of substitutes occurs in the change of prices and the product demand is affected of a substitute product. If the more substitute products become available of Pepsi, the demand becomes stretchier since customers have more alternatives. (Michael E Porter Competitive Strategy 1980 pp7-33)Pepsi has a substitute available in the market so that the cola consumption decreases it increases the consumption of bottled water, juices, teas and energy drinks of Pepsi.ConclusionFrom the above discussion on PepsiCo should increase its marke t share by tie up with different restaurants and clubs as well as continue or go up with already adopted strategies increase its share through huge advertisement and through sponsoring different events such as it continuously sponsoring cricket matches at national and international levels. It is concluded that the strategies bought up by PepsiCo is not making any effect on the sale of Cola, whereas one is cannibalizing others market only. It is also found that Pepsi brand is behind the Coke especially in Muslim dominated area, which makes a major difference in the market.Pepsi should also focus on increasing pricing advantage. This can be done by one of the ways by giving reverse quantity discounts on new packaging. Another strategy can be used y providing bundled products to convenience stores and restaurants. It can be said that although lagging behind in different products or different areas Pepsi has been able to market their products and increase market share and market growth by applying different strategies and approaches.

Is there evidence to suggest that CBT interventions work

Is in that location read to suggest that CBT interventions blend inThis evaluative report critically re expectations re reckon base evidence on the effectiveness of cognitive deportmental therapy (CBT) interventions in the context of Criminal Justice. This involves evaluation of a number of studies which atomic number 18 part of the so-called What Works? hop onnda (McGuire, 2005) which aims to curtail reoffending and support probation lapse. It is found that the evidence for CBT is supportive of its use but that its effectiveness raise be dependent on several factors such as family relationship between the probationer and worker, while CBT programmes may mask the real life difficulties which probationers experience.KeywordsProbation, offender, desistance, neighborly context, research, what works, evidence-based utiliseIntroductionThis evaluative report critically reviews research based evidence on the effectiveness of cognitive demeanoral therapy (CBT) interventions in the context of Criminal Justice. The principle of CBT as an intervention is to diversify the offenders attitudes and behaviour by exploitation cognitive behavioural techniques. These methods focus on considering and changing thinking in order to avoid patterns of behaviour that can lead to re-offending (Andrews, 1995). I am before long a Criminal Justice worker and have chosen the role of CBT as a practice intervention in probation for several reasons.The longstanding mount to criminal behaviour across criminal justice systems has been imposition via the courts of punishment such as financial penalty or loss of liberty. Whilst this delivers retribution, punishment does non necessarily reduce levels of crime (Hollin, 2002) and an alternative is offender reclamation for which there is room for development. This approach seeks to bring about individual change in the offender and to reduce the likliehood of committing further crimes.Studies reviewed are part of the so-called What Works? research agenda which aims to investigate how to reduce reoffending and support probation inspection. The What Works approach to offender rehabilitation has been written about since the 1980s and outcome evaluations indicate that this approach may have a small but arrogant effect in reduce reoffending (McGuire and Priestley, 1995). The What Works research publications indicates that cognitive behavioural interventions produce the greatest effect (Vennard, Hedderman and Sugg, 1997 Hollin, 1999 Cooke and Philip, 2000 Redondo, Sanchez-Meca and Garrido, 1999).In policy terms, probation in Scotland differs greatly from that in England and Wales. This has been due to political, legislative and cultural changes which have occurred in the last thirty years and much recently in 1991, the introduction of 100% funding and National Objectives and Standards (NOS).In well-heeled of these issues/factors, the specific question guiding the search for lit is Is there evidence to suggest that CBT interventions work in probationary practice?The search for evidence to anticipate this question involved the use of databases ASSIA, Planex Cambridge and Disc everywhere. Specific journal databases were also consulted using word searches. These included The Howard journal, Probation Journal, Criminology and Criminal Justice Journal and British Journal of friendly Work. This search yielded the most appropriate and relevant research studies pertinent to the question.Literature ReviewThis section critically reviews 6 studies. One reports on a frugal domain within which service users considered their ideal model of the hearty worker (Barry, 2000). Three studies were qualitative (Rex, 1999 McNeill, 2000 and McCulloch, 2005) while the remaining two were reviews of literature (Vanstone, 2000 and Stanley, 2009). The evidence is reviewed chthonian several key themes.What contributes to the effectiveness of CBT?As an approach to working with offenders, cognitive behavioural mo dification presumes that people who offend are shaped by their purlieu and have failed to acquire certain cognitive skills or have learned inappropriate ways of behaving, thinking is impulsive and rigid as hostile to flexible. cognitive difficulties are learned rather than innate in people who offend.The pursuit of effectiveness in the delivery and development of fellowship based disposals has been observed over the last three decades. Although, there has been progress in what is effective in supporting desistance from crime through researchers, practitioners and government ministers to bring theoretical knowledge to practice research, policy and practice highlights that knowledge and success still remains in development. Recognising the breadth of academic and empirical literature in exploring this subject, the review is deliberately hold and draws on the effectiveness research and desistance literature.Each of the studies describe a brief history of What Works in probation. Th e premise was that cognitive behavioural programmes would deliver reductions of between 5 and 10 per cent in reoffending. The evidence for this proposition was based largely on American and Canadian research and meta-analyses of relatively small surpass studies (Lipsey, 1992). Research studies suggested that not sole(prenominal) was prison ineffective in bring down recidivism, but also that welfare approaches to crime reduction was ineffectual, intrusive and repressive (Newburn, 1995 Her Majestys Inspectorate of Probation, 1998). forward to the introduction of the NOS in the early 1990s, little research into offenders views of supervision had been undertaken prior to the introduction of these Standards, which were informed more by the findings from research into what works from the academic or practitioners bakshish of view than by concern with the under address notion of what works from the offenders point of view. However, the what works principles (which inform NOS) are being adopted end-to-end the various strands of work with offenders. Three of these principles are problematic when it comes to offenders views about supervision which are risk classification, criminogenic needs and responsivity. Several of the studies were chosen as part of this literature review as they researched workers and offenders views and it will be argued that a more flexible approach needs to be adopted in relation to these principles before offenders themselves can fully benefit from supervision.With regards to the four studies carried out three involved workers being interviewed through semi-structured interviews (Rex, 1999 McNeill, 2000 and McCulloch, 2005) and one solely with probationers (Barry, 2000). Rex and McCullochs studies also involved semi-structured interviews with probationers as well as with workers. The two reviews of literature discuss what research has already been done.The research explored the characteristics of probationers on supervision, documented the services of such supervision in meeting offenders needs and reducing the risk of further offending. In order to promote analytic generalisability a random sample was constructed (Robson, 1993, pp.138-139) to enable proportionate representation in terms of gender, age and geography and two of the studies specified that all the respondents were uninfected. The studies varied in size six workers and 6 probationers (McCulloch, 2005), twelve workers (McNeill, 2000), sixty-five probationers (Barry, 2000) and sixty probationers and twenty-one workers (Rex, 1999). The two reviews of literature looked at numerous national studies. This allowed the writer to have a wide and varied consensus of effectiveness outcomes.Offenders PerspectiveAcross all of the studies, the majority of probationers understood the intention of probation and their officers were seeking, through a variety of means, to reduce the likliehood of re-offending. Few probationers regarded probation as purely a monitoring ex ercise, although the majority view was to keep them from offending over half(prenominal) expected their mixer workers to be proactive in helping them to address their problems and for probation to be more constructive than punishing. In relation to those who wanted help with problems or issues, many inferred that not re-offending was a precondition to receiving such help. (Rex, 1999 Barry, 2000 and McCulloch, 2005). in that respect was a general consensus that affectionate workers could not stop people from offending but could only help to minimize the risks through support of a more tangible and constructive nature. Even for those respondents who considered re-offending to be a possibility, there was a majority view that it was up to the individual to refrain from future offending. However, probationers attributed changes in their behaviour to their supervisory experiences was the active and participatory nature of those experiences which was one of the features of effective com munity programmes previously identify by McGuire (1995).Probationers seemed aware of the efforts required to move a decision to stop offending and were more willing to embark where they felt a commitment to and positively engaged in the supervisory relationship. The research carried out is conflicting with regards to personal engagement by probation officers. Over 3/4 of probationers referred to the need for probation officers to demonstrate empathy, and 1/2 reported that their supervisors ability to listen, show interest and understanding enabled them to open up. Yet, 1/2 also said that they appreciated more formal aspects of the supervisory relationship, 1/3 found a certain metre of distance helpful and 1/2 wanted to be treated with respect in the sense of not being judged or patronised.In showing respect, experience and knowledge probationers viewed their probation officer as taking them seriously, were able to disclose sensitive tuition and took on board what their probation officers said. Nearly 1/2 of respondents reported that the quality of the relationship with their social worker would not affect their success or nonstarter within the order, however, an equal number felt that a poor or negative relationship with their social worker could have had an impact of their ability to write out their order successfully. There were no significant differences in toleration levels between young and adult offenders. The majority stated that if they had not got on well with their social worker, they would not have turned up for appointments or co-operated in other ways and would have had tokenistic involvement.The majority of probation respondents stressed the need to pop off to know the individual, background, interests, problems and/or issues and aspirations to be able to actively help resolve any difficulties. The most plebeian thread in the studies reviewed was finding out what the problems were in an attempt to get to the root cause of the offending. Mo st of the respondents saw their offending behaviour as a force of other social or personal difficulties and that the cause itself e.g. unemployment was addressed as opposed to just the effects (offending behaviour).Offending behaviour is prominent on the minds of people who have been on community based supervision and who are asked about their views about its effectiveness, and this has been demonstrated in the studies where offenders views of supervision has been sought. However, there are other problems which equally, or more importantly, need to change through social work support which must come from the offenders themselves.Workers perspectiveWorkers who were interviewed both individually and in concourses (Rex, 1999 McNeill, 2000 and McCulloch, 2005) were offered a range of potential measures of effectiveness and rate them accordingly to which they considered most relevant in judging effectiveness in probation cases. These measures were selected to encompass a wide range of p ossibilities based on effectiveness agenda, probation policy and literature and reflect cling to bases for probation (Nellis, 1995). Some workers expressed that they saw managers as concerned only with efficiency (numbers game), sentencers as sometimes caring, especially when vulnerability had been identified, policy makers as interested in value for money, the public protection agenda, reduced offending and the desire to avoid adverse publicity. In general workers identified success with outcomes such as supervision action plans fully and successfully implemented, achieving reduction or cessation in offending by tackling underlying needs and/or problems and improvements. (Rex, 1999 McNeil, 2000 Vanstone, 2000 McCulloch, 2005).Outcome measures such as reducing reoffending, changing attitudes, increasing victim empathy and reducing probationers needs were more important to Scottish workers than order compliance in contrast to an earlier study undertaken by Humphrey and Pease (1992) however, these findings have to be treated with caution, given the small scale of the samples and range of scores for each possible measure shows a lack of consensus amongst workers. There was dissatisfaction with forms of monitoring which, in the past, had focused on quantitative measures which was also indentified in Humphrey and Peases (1992) study.As discussed earlier, most probationers saw their offending behaviour as a consequence of other social or personal difficulties and this was also recognised by workers and several of the studies provide a clear rationale for attending to the broader social contexts in which offenders live and change. The studies underline the inter-relationship between these key contexts and the need for workers to support the composite plant process of desistance by addressing all of these areas (McNeill, 2000 Rex, 1999). It is also suggested that there is a reticence amongst offence focused probation managers and staff to locately address family r elated obstacles, social and environmental factors or other underlying issues (McNeill, 2000 Barry, 2000 McCulloch 2005).Rex (1999) identifies the relational element of supervision and the importance of probationers legal opinion valued and engaged in the supervision process although most probationers valued guidance and advice on how they might resolve social and personal problems rather than direct operable assistance. In contrast, Barry (2000) interpreted focus on probationers social problems as a weakness as this is seen to reflect a welfare as opposed to an offence focussed approach to intervention.Although workers believed that probation should address social problems which mirrored that of probationers, a minority expressed ambivalence on this issue relating it to organisational pressures, challenges of addressing social problems and a more robust view of what probation was about (McNeill, 2000 McCulloch, 2005). This view corresponds with the current professional climate o f narrow targets, high caseloads and changing professional values and this is neither surprising or difficult to defend. However, in light of what probationers identify as important in desisting from crime it poses a problem if probation hopes to demonstrate effectiveness in assisting probationers to achieve and sustain desistance from offending.Methods used to address probationers social problems generally reflect the findings from wider probation research which identify the use of talking methods, referrals to other agencies and direct support as the most common methods to address probationers problems (Rex, 2009 McCulloch, 2005).What seemed evident from all of the studies was a construction of effectiveness which, while aiming for both offence and need-related outcomes, lays significance on both process and progress.What Works and perpetrateThe supervision of offenders is increasingly adopting a conclavework approach using predominantly cognitive behavioural methods which are s een to effectively reducing offending behaviour. The appeal is based on research into North American groupwork programmes (Lipsey, 1992). This in turn informed the guiding principles of NOS. It can be argued that groupwork programmes often operate in a vacuum and ignores the wider social problems affecting offenders and does not differentiate between individual group members risk levels and needs. However, not all offenders have any or similar, problems other than their offending behaviour and even the causes and consequences of, and future risk associated with, that behaviour can be interpreted differently between offenders. Community supervision devoid of a wider focus could be viewed as a component of change from assimilation and incorporation to separation and exclusion and this criticism is aimed more at the implementers than the authors of the model who do stress the importance of addressing broader structural problems (Young, 1998 cited in Vanstone, 2000).Changes in the way t hat probation officers are trained have increased fears about de-professionalisation and cognitive behavioural programmes equally are seen to contribute to the corruption of the role into the application of techniques devised by someone else (Pitts, 1992 cited in Vanstone, 2000) although it could be argued that this contributes to a form of professionalism already missing. This practice could also undermine anti-discriminatory practice as it reduces sensibility to the needs of women and ethnic minorities. Similar to other community supervision initiatives, the development of these programmes has only taken into account the needs of men and not those of women. Therefore, an awareness of what should change should be taken into account to ensure thoughtful and reflective diversity.Overall, the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural programmes is based on completion effects. Programmes are long and complex with rules about participants dropping in and restarting and this in theory, me ans that only the full programme will be effective in bringing about cognitive and behavioural change. In contrast, those who do not complete the full programme are less possible to change. The only review that specifically addressed group work programmes was Stanley (2009) and he reviewed other reviews (undertaken in England and Wales) to come to his conclusions. He judged that there was positive conclusions for cognitive behaviour programmes and drug treatment to reduce re-offending but there was weak evidence for the effectiveness of domestic abuse programmes, employment and basic skills training, intensive supervision and unpaid work and they were unlikely to have a positive effect on re-offending. For four types of intervention the National Audit Office (NAO) judged, there was insufficient evidence to suggest that although there might be a positive impact the evidence was not hale enough , mainly due to the low quality of research to show or validate strong positive effects ( Davis et al., 2008)A main piece, although flawed, evidence is an analysis by National Offender Management Systems Research Development and Statistics Directorate (NOMS RDS) of outcomes of predicted and actual reconviction range for accepted programmes by the probation service in 2004 (Hollis, 2007). This was based on 25, 255 cases but 6,000 had to be excluded due to poor quality data. It would be fair to say, that there was diverge (although not reported) within the analysis as both offender compliance and quality of programme delivery are positive factors the bias in the endurance was towards successful programmes and outcomes. There was also no comparison group and this was a major weakness in the report.The report compared actual with predicted reconvictions for offenders engaged in the accredited programmes. It is possible that the amount of cases sentenced to accredited programmes but failed to start were not recorded and the report understates the rate of dropout. Only 40 per cent completed the programme which is well 1/2 of the target of 70 per cent set in the original What Works strategy but those who completed were considerably less likely to re-offend than expected and did better than those who did not complete. Allowing for the biases, this looks a positive result and demonstrates the impact and effectiveness of accredited programmes. However, not all programmes were equally successful such as Domestic Violence programmes which in general failed to show a significant reduction in reconviction. Conversely, anger management, sex offender and general offending behaviour programmes showed in excess of 10 per cent reduction in reconviction of cases analysed.There is an assumed opposition between What Works and individual work with offenders. Work by Chapman and Hough (1998) placed cognitive behavioural programmes within the context of desistance and individual casework. The use of targets could be seen to undermine as an unintended consequence as it has led to an speech pattern on completing the group element in programmes at the expense of the quality of engagement with individual offenders.ConclusionThe findings of these studies confirm a considerable amount of evidence from both desistance and effectiveness literature about the circumstances offenders may be encouraged to cease re-offending. A recurring theme to emerge from probationers accounts is the bother sustaining a life free from crime. This explains why the professional agenda in addressing offending behaviour and minimizing risk needs to be balanced with the offenders agenda of addressing practical concerns. Equally important is the need to develop a close and trusting relationship between the service user and worker as is possible within the continual shift of Criminal Justice policy. If this relationship is not accepted as influential and the offenders own agenda recognised, then social work supervision could appear to service users to be alienating and irrelev ant and consequently open to criticism, non-cooperation and failure.One major flaw of the What Works agenda is the narrowing of practice in cognitive behavioural approaches and the limited utility of standardised programmes with minority groups of offenders. There is an assumption that female and non-white offenders are fitted into programmes that have been demonstrated to be effective with white males.It is increasingly evident that What Works operationalised through accredited programmes is not the only or entire solution and the challenge is to develop the strengths that are there, build on new and diverse understanding of offenders and link these to the literature on intervention effects to enhance knowledge of what works when, for whom and under what circumstances.AppendixThe search for evidence to address this question involved the use of databases ASSIA, Planex Cambridge and Discover. Specific journal databases were also consulted using word searches. These included The Howar d Journal, Probation Journal, Criminology and Criminal Justice Journal and British Journal of Social Work. This search yielded the most appropriate and relevant research studies pertinent to the question.PaperAimsMethods used to collect dataFindingsRelevance of evidence to answering search questionRex, S (1999) Desistance from Offending Experiences of Probation. The Howard Journal, 384, pp.266-383To make connections between two different research fields the What Works? literature on the effectiveness of community programmes in bringing about a reduction in reoffending and the criminal careers literature, the discussion of the wider social processes by which people themselves come to stop offending.Qualitative Semi-structured interviews with a group of probationers.Reports on the extent to which probationers who were interviewed linked their experiences to a reduction in their offending and considers the implications for how probation officers might be able to motivate and assist mo ves towards law-abiding conduct.Examines desistance from the point of view of a group of probationers and their supervisors.McNeill, F (2000) Defining Effective Probation Frontline Perspectives. The Howard Journal, 394, pp. 382-397The research study attempted to explore workers definitions of effective probation.Qualitative semi-structured individual and group interviews.Evidence of considerable diversity of opinion. Generally workers preferred to measure effectiveness in terms.Cautious optimism about the capacity, opportunity and motivation of criminal justice social workers to rise to the challenge that the effectiveness agenda represents.Barry, M. (2000) The Mentor/Monitor Debates in Criminal Justice What Works for Offenders. British Journal of Social Work, 30, pp.575-595Views from probationers and ex-prisoners about social work supervision in England, Scotland and Wales.Literature Review drawing on a range of studies from last five years.Robinson, G (2001) Power, Knowledge and What Works in Probation. The Howard Journal, 40 3, pp.235-254To examine the To To examine the implications of what works in the context of probation, both at the level of professional practice and the broader level of the power base as a wholeMcCulloch, T (2005) Probation, Social Context and Desistance Retracing the RelationshipA small scale Scottish study which draws on participant perspectives and explore the aid given to probationers social contexts in supporting desistance from crime.Qualitative -small scale research studyStanley, S (2009) What Works in 2009 Progress or Stagnation? Probation Journal, 56 2, pp153Reviews evidence produced on the effectiveness of evidence-based interventions (What Works) and in particular cognitive behavioural programmes.

Greek Art and Architecture Essays -- essays research papers

Essay 1The castling of Knossos, a Minoan mud brick and timber structure on a modify stone foundation, featuring a underlying courtyard, was constructed on an acropolis. It was a place for rulers to reside, shrines for religious ceremonies to be worshipped, the industrial production of objects, and administrative duties. Ample hallways, stairways, chambers, and light wells supplemented the determinedly built structure. There were plenty of columns to mark he four awe inspiring entrance passages.Four wings, oriented in a north-south direction, surrounded the central courtyard. The east wing featured the residential spaces, a whole shebanghop, and a shrine, while the west wing was complete with more shrines, a throne room, storerooms, and a host hall. The north wing included a theater argona. The south wing featured a separate paved courtyard west of the palace. Inside the Palace of Knossos, plastered walls were painted with color washes. The walls were also decorated with frescos , many of which depicted religious ceremonies.The Minoans were a people who enjoyed life. Many wine jars were found and it can be noted that women commonly bore their breasts. Long hair and makeup were popular and many festivals and events were held at the 1400 room palace. Nothing was fortified. These people had a love of art, color, and leisure, as depicted in many of the frescos at Knossos.Minoan art occasionally featured geometric and repetitive forms on walls, floors, and ceilings, but more common were analogical and landscape elements. Often seen were both local and foreign flowers and plants. It is important to mention that no narrative style has been noted and there are no hieroglyphics to decipher the images at Knossos.An example of a Minoan fresco at Knossos is the Bull Jumping mural, about 24 1.2 in height. One person holds the horns of a poop while another jumps over the animal. This may have been a sporting event, as bulls were an important image, ad may have been sac rificed. Figures in these Minoan works are much more animated than typical Egyptian examples.A face of a bull with guilded horns, about 12 tall, was found at Knossos. Created from steatite with shell, rock crystal, and red jasper, a wh... ...igures stands in Athenas outstretched hand. The shield rests at her side, a sign that war is over, but Athena is keep mum prepared and nourishive of her city. Athena was the goddess of Athens, but it is still unsure which came first. This statue of the greatly revered Athena stood in her temple to be both revered and to protect her city and its people.The shield that rests by Athena is highly decorated and given its immense size, the work that went into this project is unimaginable. The inside part shows the gods against the giants, depicted the giants storming Mount Olympus. The amazons are sculpted on the outside of the shield. Even Athenas sandals have figurative sculpture, this time of Lapiths and Centaurs fighting. Along the base of the statue, golden images of Pandora and witnesses to her birth contrast powerfully against a white background.There is so much information available architecturally and symbolically on the Parthenon that it is hard to form a concise little(a) description of important points, however, it is because of this knowledge, that scholars have been able to really understand Greek art and architecture.

The Call to Dinner Essay -- Art, George Agnew Reid

The recollect to Dinner was painted from 1886 to 1887 by George Agnew Reid. The icon is an vegetable embrocate on try and is large scale, measuring 48 inches in height and 71 inches in length. Reids paintings were often large and it was said one canvas could dominate a room crowded with people. Early in his artistic career, Reid became known for his genre scenes. Genre painting depicts scenes from everyday life. In The Call to Dinner, the subroutine of oil paint allows Reid to emphasize the principles of genre painting while permitting the enhancement of realism and naturalism within the composition. In oil painting, ground pigment is interracial with linseed or walnut oil. The oil creates a smooth sheen over the surface of the painting. Finished in 1887, it is most likely that linseed oil was used as a base for the pigment due to the limited amount of cracking seen today. The benefits presented by oil paint include a mute drying time, which allows for increased flexibi lity and subtly in colour mixing and blending. Also, oil paint can be applied thicker than other mediums, such as tempera.The focal point of the scene is the woman calling out into the distance. The subject of the painting appears to stand in arrested motion. The lips of the woman appear parted suggesting the action of speech. The woman is visualised wearing a greyish-blue dress, white apron, red scarf and a straw hat. The woman is holding the brim of her hat with her left hand, indicating the potential force of overturn on the figures within the scene. Her hat is painted in fine detail. Reid uses short, thick brush strokes to imitate the weaves of the hat, creating realistic texture. The building up of consistent layers of oil paint creates the porcelain like texture of the womans s... ...n the painting is a darker tone of blue, whereas closer to the paintings linear horizon, the blue changes to a lighter, almost white hue. The formal properties of The Call to Dinner by George Agnew Reid contribute to the successfulness of the genre scene and assist in finding meaning within the painting. Through the benefits of oil paint, Reid is able to succeed a high level of realism and naturalism in The Call to Dinner. The versatility of the medium allows the artist to enhance all details and elements within a painting and present a realistic reflection of everyday life. Naturalism in movement is heightened by the mediums ability to subtly blend. Textural elements, replicating the forms of reality, are created with the adaptability of oil on canvas. The formal properties of the medium allow the artist to shed light on a single moment in rural life.